Comparative-Quantitative Analysis of Factors Affecting Civil War Onset in Societies

چلبی، مسعود (1389). جامعه‌شناسی نظم: تشریح و تحلیل نظری نظم اجتماعی. تهران: نشر نی.

ماهونی، جیمز (1404). منطق علم الاجتماع، ترجمۀ علی سالار. تهران: نشر ثالث (در دست چاپ).

Abouharb, M. R., & Cingranelli, D. (2007). Human rights and structural adjustment. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511551055

Acemoglu, D., Naidu, S., Restrepo, P., & Robinson, J. A. (2015). Democracy, redistribution, and inequality. In Handbook of income distribution (Vol. 2, pp. 1885-1966). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-444-59429-7.00022-4

Ahmad, M. (2017). Economic freedom and income inequality: does political regime matter. Economies, 5(2), 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies5020018

Ahmad, M., & Nayan, S. (2019) Income Inequality and Middle-Income Trap: a panel Data Analysis on the Effects of Economic Freedom and Democracy International Journal of Business & Society, 20(2). 563-584 https://doi.org/10.26745/ahbvuibfd.1425466

Alesina, A., & Perotti, R. (1996). Income distribution, political instability, and investment. European economic review, 40(6), 1203-1228.

https:/doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(95)00030-5

Alesina, A., & Rodrik, D. (1994). Distributive politics and economic growth. The quarterly journal of economics, 109(2), 465-490.

https://doi.org/10.2307/2118470

Alesina, A., Baqir, R., & Easterly, W. (1999). Public goods and ethnic divisions. The Quarterly journal of economics, 114(4), 1243-1284.

https://doi.org/10.1162/003355399556269

Angrist, J. D., & Pischke, J. S. (2009). Mostly harmless econometrics: An empiricist's companion. Princeton university press.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400829828

Auvinen, J. (1997). Political conflict in less developed countries 1981-89. Journal of peace Research, 34(2), 177-195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343397034002005

Baddeley, M. (2011). Civil war and human development: impacts of finance and financial infrastructure.

Balcázar, C. F. (2016). Long-run effects of democracy on income inequality in Latin America. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 14, 289-307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-016-9329-3

Baldwin, K., & Huber, J. D. (2010). Economic versus cultural differences: Forms of ethnic diversity and public goods provision. American Political Science Review, 104(4), 644-662. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055410000419

Bara, C., Deglow, A., & Van Baalen, S. (2021). Civil war recurrence and postwar violence: Toward an integrated research agenda. European journal of international relations, 27(3), 913-935. https://doi.org/10.1177/13540661211006443

Beber, B., Roessler, P., & Scacco, A. (2014). Intergroup violence and political attitudes: evidence from a dividing Sudan. The Journal of Politics, 76(3), 649-665. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022381614000103

Beck, N., Katz, J. N., & Tucker, R. (1998). Taking time seriously: Time-series-cross-section analysis with a binary dependent variable. American Journal of Political Science, 42(4), 1260-1288. https://doi.org/10.2307/2991857

Benhabib, J., Corvalan, A., & Spiegel, M. M. (2013). Income and democracy: Evidence from nonlinear estimations. Economics Letters, 118(3), 489-492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.12.015

Besley, T., & Persson, T. (2008). Wars and state capacity. Journal of the European Economic Association, 6(2-3), 522-530. https://doi.org/10.1162/jeea.2008.6.2-3.522

Besser, A., & Neria, Y. (2009). PTSD symptoms, satisfaction with life, and prejudicial attitudes toward the adversary among Israeli civilians exposed to ongoing missile attacks. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 22(4), 268-275.

https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20420

Blattman, C., & Miguel, E. (2010). Civil war. Journal of Economic literature, 48(1), 3-57. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.48.1.3

Bleaney, M., & Dimico, A. (2011). How different are the correlates of onset and continuation of civil wars?. Journal of Peace Research, 48(2), 145-155.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310394697

Blimes, R. J. (2006). The indirect effect of ethnic heterogeneity on the likelihood of civil war onset. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50(4), 536-547. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222706289402

Brancati, D. (2007). Political aftershocks: The impact of earthquakes on intrastate conflict. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 51(5), 715-743.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002707305234

Brückner, M. (2010). Population size and civil conflict risk: Is there a causal link?. The Economic Journal, 120(544), 535-550.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2010.02352.x

Buckley, J. (2024). Conducting Power Analyses to Determine Sample Sizes in Quantitative Research: A Primer for Technology Education Researchers Using Common Statistical Tests. Journal of Technology Education, 35(2), 81-109.

https://doi.org/10.21061/jte.v35i2.a.5

Buhaug, H. (2006). Relative capability and rebel objective in civil war. Journal of Peace Research, 43(6), 691-708. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343306069255

Buhaug, H., Cederman, L. E., & Rød, J. K. (2008). Disaggregating ethno-nationalist civil wars: A dyadic test of exclusion theory. International Organization, 62(3), 531-551. 

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020818308080181

Carter, D. B., & Signorino, C. S. (2010). Back to the future: Modeling time dependence in binary data. Political Analysis, 18(3), 271-292. 

https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpq013

Cassar, A., Grosjean, P., & Whitt, S. (2013). Legacies of violence: trust and market development. Journal of Economic Growth, 18, 285-318. 

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-013-9091-3

Cederman, L. E., Buhaug, H., & Rød, J. K. (2009). Ethno-nationalist dyads and civil war: A GIS-based analysis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 53(4), 496-525.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002709336455

Cederman, L. E., Weidmann, N. B., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2011). Horizontal inequalities and ethnonationalist civil war: A global comparison. American political science review, 105(3), 478-495.

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055411000207

Chalabi, M. (2010). Sociology of order. Tehran:Ney Publications. [In Persian].

Chassang, S., & i Miquel, G. P. (2009). Economic shocks and civil war. SSRN. https://doi.org/10.1561/100.00008072

Ciccone, A., & Markus, B. (2007). Growth, Democracy, and Civil War (No. 6568). CEPR Discussion Papers. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1028221

Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587

Collier, P. (1998). The political economy of ethnicity (No. 1998-08). Centre for the Study of African Economies, University of Oxford.

Collier, P. (1999). On the economic consequences of civil war. Oxford economic papers, 51(1), 168-183.

https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/51.1.168

Collier, P., & Duponchel, M. (2013). The economic legacy of civil war: firm-level evidence from Sierra Leone. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 57(1), 65-88. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002712464847

Collier, P., & Hoeffler, A. (1998). On economic causes of civil war. Oxford economic papers, 50(4), 563-573.  https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/50.4.563

Collier, P., & Hoeffler, A. (2002). On the incidence of civil war in Africa. Journal of conflict resolution, 46(1), 13-28.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002702046001002

Collier, P., & Hoeffler, A. (2004). Greed and grievance in civil war. Oxford economic papers, 56(4), 563-595. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpf064

Collier, P., Hoeffler, A., & Rohner, D. (2009). Beyond greed and grievance: feasibility and civil war. oxford Economic papers, 61(1), 1-27. 

https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpn029

Costalli, S., Moretti, L., & Pischedda, C. (2017). The economic costs of civil war: Synthetic counterfactual evidence and the effects of ethnic fractionalization. Journal of Peace Research, 54(1), 80-98.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343316675200

De Juan, A., & Pierskalla, J. H. (2016). Civil war violence and political trust: Microlevel evidence from Nepal. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 33(1), 67-88.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894214544612

De la Calle, L., & Sánchez-Cuenca, I. (2012). Rebels without a territory: An analysis of nonterritorial conflicts in the world, 1970–1997. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 56(4), 580-603.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002711431800

De Luca, G., & Verpoorten, M. (2015). Civil war, social capital and resilience in Uganda. Oxford economic papers, 67(3), 661-686. 

https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpv036

De Soysa, I. (2002). Paradise is a bazaar? Greed, creed, and governance in civil war, 1989-99. Journal of peace research, 39(4), 395-416. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343302039004002

De Soysa, I., & Fjelde, H. (2010). Is the hidden hand an iron fist? Capitalism and civil peace, 1970-2005. Journal of Peace Research, 47(3), 287-298.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310362167

DeNardo, J. (2014). Power in numbers: The political strategy of protest and rebellion (Vol. 41). Princeton University Press.

DeRouen Jr, K. R., & Bercovitch, J. (2008). Enduring internal rivalries: A new framework for the study of civil war. Journal of Peace Research, 45(1), 55-74.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343307084923

Devitt, C., & Tol, R. S. (2012). Civil war, climate change, and development: A scenario study for sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Peace Research, 49(1), 129-145. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311427417

Diamond, L. J., & Plattner, M. F. (Eds.). (1994). Nationalism, ethnic conflict, and democracy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0008423900015225

Dixon, J. (2009). What causes civil wars? Integrating quantitative research findings. International Studies Review, 11(4), 707-735.

 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2486.2009.00892.x

Drazanova, L. (2019). Historical index of ethnic fractionalization dataset (HIEF). Harvard Dataverse.

https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/4JQRCL

Dube, O., & Vargas, J. F. (2013). Commodity price shocks and civil conflict: Evidence from Colombia. Review of Economic studies, 80(4), 1384-1421. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdt009

Easterly, W., & Levine, R. (1997). Africa's growth tragedy: policies and ethnic divisions. The quarterly journal of economics, 1203-1250. 

https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300555466

Elbadawi, I., & Hegre, H. (2004, January). Globalization, economic shocks, and armed conflict. In Conference on Globalization, Territoriality, and Conflict, San Diego.

Elbadawi, I., & Sambanis, N. (2002). How much war will we see? Explaining the prevalence of civil war. Journal of conflict resolution, 46(3), 307-334.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002702046003001

Ellingsen, T. (2000). Colorful community or ethnic witches' brew? Multiethnicity and domestic conflict during and after the cold war. Journal of conflict resolution, 44(2), 228-249.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002700044002004

Ellingsen, Tanja and Nils Petter Gleditsch. (1997). Democracy and Armed Conflict in the Third World. In Ketil Volden and Dan Smith, (Ed.). Causes of Conflict in Third World Countries. (pp. 69-81). International Peace Research Institute

Enterline, A. J., & Greig, J. M. (2008). Perfect storms? Political instability in imposed polities and the futures of Iraq and Afghanistan. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 52(6), 880-915.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002708323796

Esteban, J., & Ray, D. (2008). Polarization, fractionalization and conflict. Journal of peace Research, 45(2), 163-182.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343307087175

Esty, D. C., Goldstone, J. A., Gurr, T. R., Harff, B., Levy, M., Dabelko, G., ... & Unger, A. N. (1998). State Failure Task Force Report: Phase II Findings (McLean, VA: Science Applications International Corporation).

Esty, D. C., Goldstone, J. A., Gurr, T. R., Surko, P., & Unger, A. N. (1995). State failure task force report. McLean, VA: Science Applications International Corporation.

Fearon, J. D., & Laitin, D. D. (2003). Ethnicity, insurgency, and civil war. American political science review, 97(1), 75-90.  https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055403000534

Fearon, J. D., Kasara, K., & Laitin, D. D. (2007). Ethnic minority rule and civil war onset. American Political science review, 101(1), 187-193.  https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055407070219

Fein, H. (1995). Life-integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987. Human Rights Quarterly, 17(1), 170-191.  https://doi.org/10.1353/hrq.1995.0001

Fjelde, H. (2009). Buying peace? Oil wealth, corruption and civil war, 1985—99. Journal of peace research, 46(2), 199-218.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343308100715

Fjelde, H., & De Soysa, I. (2009). Coercion, co-optation, or cooperation? State capacity and the risk of civil war, 1961—2004. Conflict management and peace science, 26(1), 5-25.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894208097664

Forsberg, E. (2008). Polarization and ethnic conflict in a widened strategic setting. Journal of Peace Research, 45(2), 283-300.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343307087185

Fox, J. (2004). The rise of religious nationalism and conflict: Ethnic conflict and revolutionary wars, 1945-2001. Journal of peace Research, 41(6), 715-731.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343304047434

Gallego, J. (2018). Civil conflict and voting behavior: Evidence from Colombia. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 35(6), 601-621. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894218788362

Ghobarah, H. A., Huth, P., & Russett, B. (2003). Civil wars kill and maim people—long after the shooting stops. American Political Science Review, 97(2), 189-202. 

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055403000613

Ghobarah, H. A., Huth, P., & Russett, B. (2004). The post-war public health effects of civil conflict. Social science & medicine, 59(4), 869-884.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2003.11.043

Gibler, D. M., & Miller, S. V. (2014). External territorial threat, state capacity, and civil war. Journal of Peace Research, 51(5), 634-646.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343314531003

Gleditsch, K. S. (2007). Transnational dimensions of civil war. Journal of peace research, 44(3), 293-309.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343307076637

Gleditsch, K. S. (2017). Civil war from a transnational perspective. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics.   https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.312

Gleditsch, N. P., Hegre, H., & Strand, H. (2009). Democracy and civil war. Handbook of war studies III: the intrastate dimension, 155-192.

Gleditsch, N. P., Wallensteen, P., Eriksson, M., Sollenberg, M., & Strand, H. (2002). Armed conflict 1946-2001: A new dataset. Journal of peace research, 39(5), 615-637.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343302039005007

Greene, W. H. (2012). Econometric Analysis (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Gubler, J. R., & Selway, J. S. (2012). Horizontal inequality, crosscutting cleavages, and civil war. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 56(2), 206-232.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002711431416

Gubler, J. R., Selway, J. S., & Varshney, A. (2016). Crosscutting cleavages and ethno-communal violence: Evidence from Indonesia in the post-Suharto era (No. 2016/129). WIDER Working Paper.  https://doi.org/10.35188/unu-wider/2016/173-4

Gujarati, D. (2004). Basic econometrics (Forth edition ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Gurr, T. R. (1993). Minorities at Risk (Washington, DC, United States Institute of Peace).

Gurr, T. R. (2000). Ethnic warfare on the wane. Foreign Affairs, 52-64.

https://doi.org/10.2307/20049729

Gyimah-Brempong, K., & Corley, M. E. (2005). Civil wars and economic growth in sub-saharan africa1. Journal of African Economies, 14(2), 270-311.  https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/eji004

Habyarimana, J., Humphreys, M., Posner, D. N., & Weinstein, J. M. (2007). Why does ethnic diversity undermine public goods provision?. American political science review, 101(4), 709-725.  https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055407070499

Hauge, W., & Ellingsen, T. (1998). Beyond environmental scarcity: Causal pathways to conflict. Journal of peace research, 35(3), 299-317.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343398035003003

Hegre, H. (2001). Toward a democratic civil peace? Democracy, political change, and civil war, 1816–1992. American political science review, 95(1), 33-48. 

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055401000119

Hegre, H., & Sambanis, N. (2006). Sensitivity Analysis of Empirical Results on Civil War Onset. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50(4), 508-535. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002706289303

Hegre, H., Ellingsen, T., Gates, S., & Gleditsch, N. P. (2001). Toward a Democratic Civil Peace? Democracy, Political Change, and Civil War, 1816-1992. American Political Science Review, 33-48. 

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055401000119

Hegre, H., Østby, G., & Raleigh, C. (2009). Poverty and civil war events: A disaggregated study of Liberia. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 53(4), 598-623.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002709336459

Hegre, Håvard, Nils Petter Gleditsch, and Ranveig Gissinger. (2003). Political institutions, globalization, and conflict. In Gerald Schneider, Katherine Barbieri, and Nils Petter Gleditsch (Ed.). Globalization and armed conflict, (pp271-5). Boulder, CO: Rowman & Littlefield

Henderson, E. A., & Singer, J. D. (2000). Civil war in the post-colonial world, 1946-92. Journal of Peace research, 37(3), 275-299. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343300037003001

Hendrix, C. S., & Salehyan, I. (2012). Climate change, rainfall, and social conflict in Africa. Journal of peace research, 49(1), 35-50.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311426165

Heston, A., Summers, R., & Aten, B. (2012). Penn world table version 7.1. Center of comparisons of production, income and prices at the University of Pennsylvania.

Hibbs, D. A. (1973). Mass political violence: A cross-national causal analysis (Vol. 253). New York: Wiley.

Hidalgo, F. D., Naidu, S., Nichter, S., & Richardson, N. (2010). Economic determinants of land invasions. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 92(3), 505-523. 

https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00007

Hintze, O., & Gilbert, F. (1975). Military Organization and the Organization of the State. The Historical Essays of Otto Hintze. New York: Oxford University Press

Holtermann, H. (2012). Explaining the development–civil war relationship. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 29(1), 56-78.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894211430279

Homer-Dixon, T. F. (2010). Environment, scarcity, and violence. Princeton University Press.  

https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400822997

Horowitz DL (1985) Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Hosmer Jr, D. W., Lemeshow, S., & Sturdivant, R. X. (2013). Applied logistic regression. John Wiley & Sons.   https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118548387

Hutchison, M. L. (2014). Tolerating threat? The independent effects of civil conflict on domestic political tolerance. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 58(5), 796-824. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002713478566

Hutchison, M. L., & Johnson, K. (2011). Capacity to trust? Institutional capacity, conflict, and political trust in Africa, 2000–2005. Journal of Peace Research, 48(6), 737-752.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311417981

Ishii, T. (2022). Mechanism of institutional transition, political instability and expansion of local power through civil wars: A model and comparative history. Journal of Economics and Political Economy, 9(2), 102-177.  https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3655729

Jakobsen, T. G., De Soysa, I., & Jakobsen, J. (2013). Why do poor countries suffer costly conflict? Unpacking per capita income and the onset of civil war. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 30(2), 140-160.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894212473923

Jola‐Sanchez, A. F. (2022). How does warfare affect firms' productivity?. Production and Operations Management, 31(5), 1940-1962.  

https://doi.org/10.1111/poms.13658

Kalyvas, Stathis N. (2007). ‘‘Civil Wars.’’ In Boix, C., & Stokes, S. C. (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics, (pp 416-435). Oxford University Press.  

https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199566020.003.0018

Kang, S., & Meernik, J. (2005). Civil war destruction and the prospects for economic growth. The Journal of Politics, 67(1), 88-109.

 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00309.x

Kijewski, S., & Freitag, M. (2018). Civil war and the formation of social trust in Kosovo: Posttraumatic growth or war-related distress?. Journal of conflict resolution, 62(4), 717-742.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002716666324

Knutsen, C. H. (2011). Which democracies prosper? Electoral rules, form of government and economic growth. Electoral Studies, 30(1), 83-90.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.09.006

Knutsen, C. H. (2013). Democracy, state capacity, and economic growth. World development, 43, 1-18. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.014

Koubi, V., Bernauer, T., Kalbhenn, A., & Spilker, G. (2012). Climate variability, economic growth, and civil conflict. Journal of peace research, 49(1), 113-127. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311427173

Kunovich, R. M., & Hodson, R. (1999). Conflict, religious identity, and ethnic intolerance in Croatia. Social Forces, 78(2), 643-668. 

https://doi.org/10.2307/3005570

Kyriacou, A. P. (2013). Ethnic group inequalities and governance: Evidence from developing countries. Kyklos, 66(1), 78-101.

.%20%20%20https:/doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12012

Lai, B., & Thyne, C. (2007). The effect of civil war on education, 1980—97. Journal of peace research, 44(3), 277-292.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343307076631

Lujala, P., Gleditsch, N. P., & Gilmore, E. (2005). A diamond curse? Civil war and a lootable resource. Journal of conflict resolution, 49(4), 538-562.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002705277548

Mahoney, J. (2025). The logic of social science (A. Salar, Trans.). Sales Publications (Forthcoming). [In Persian].

Mauro, P. (1995). Corruption and growth. The quarterly journal of economics, 110(3), 681-712. 

https://doi.org/10.2307/2946696

McAdam, D. (1982). Political process and the development of black insurgency. chicago. Ill: University of Chicago Press.   https://doi.org/10.2307/1961289

Mesquita, B. B. D., Smith, A., Siverson, R. M., & Morrow, J. D. (2003). The logic of political survival (No. 19095). MIT.   https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/4292.001.0001

Miguel, E., Satyanath, S., & Sergenti, E. (2004). Economic shocks and civil conflict: An instrumental variables approach. Journal of political Economy, 112(4), 725-753. 

https://doi.org/10.1086/421174

Miranda, L. C., Perondi, L. F., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2016). The evolution of civil war severity, 1816–2005. Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 22(3), 247-276.

https://doi.org/10.1515/peps-2016-0012

Mironova, V., & Whitt, S. (2016). The evolution of prosociality and parochialism after violence. Journal of Peace Research, 53(5), 648-664. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343316648204

Montalvo, J. G., & Reynal-Querol, M. (2005). Ethnic polarization, potential conflict, and civil wars. American economic review, 95(3), 796-816.   https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828054201468

Mueni, M. R., Wawire, N. H., & Onono, P. A. (2021). Effects of political risk factors on tax revenue in Kenya. European journal of economic and financial research, 5(1). 

https://doi.org/10.46827/ejefr.v5i1.1068

Muller, E. N. (1985). Income inequality, regime repressiveness, and political violence. American sociological review, 47-61. 

https://doi.org/10.2307/2095339

Muller, E. N., & Seligson, M. A. (1987). Inequality and insurgency. American political science Review, 81(2), 425-451.   https://doi.org/10.2307/1961960

Muller, E. N., & Weede, E. (1990). Cross-national variation in political violence: A rational action approach. Journal of conflict resolution, 34(4), 624-651.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002790034004003

Murdoch, J. C., & Sandler, T. (2002a). Economic growth, civil wars, and spatial spillovers. Journal of conflict resolution, 46(1), 91-110.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002702046001006

Murdoch, J. C., & Sandler, T. (2004). Civil wars and economic growth: Spatial dispersion. American Journal of Political Science, 48(1), 138-151.   https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00061.x

Murdoch, J., & Sandler, T. (2002b). Civil wars and economic growth: A regional comparison. Defence and Peace Economics, 13(6), 451-464.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10242690214336

Narayan, P. K., Narayan, S., & Smyth, R. (2011). Does democracy facilitate economic growth or does economic growth facilitate democracy? An empirical study of Sub-Saharan Africa. Economic Modelling, 28(3), 900-910.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2010.11.004

Nieman, M. D. (2011). Shocks and turbulence: Globalization and the occurrence of civil war. International Interactions, 37(3), 263-292.

https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2011.594756

North, R. (1984). Integrating the perspectives: From population to conflict and war. Multidisciplinary Perspectives on Population and Conflict. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

Olson Jr, M. (1971). The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups, with a new preface and appendix (Vol. 124). harvard university press.  

https:/doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjsf3ts

Opp, K. D. (1994). Repression and revolutionary action: East Germany in 1989. Rationality and society, 6(1), 101-138.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1043463194006001007

Østby, G. (2008). Polarization, horizontal inequalities and violent civil conflict. Journal of Peace Research, 45(2), 143-162.  

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343307087169

Østby, G., Nordås, R., & Rød, J. K. (2009). Regional inequalities and civil conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa. International studies quarterly, 53(2), 301-324.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2009.00535.x

Parsons, T. (1951). Toward a general theory of action. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674863507

Payne, R. A. (1995). Freedom and the environment. Journal of democracy, 6(3), 41-55. 

https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1995.0053

Peffley, M., Hutchison, M. L., & Shamir, M. (2015). The impact of persistent terrorism on political tolerance: Israel, 1980 to 2011. American political science review, 109(4), 817-832.   https://doi.org/10.1017/s0003055415000441

Posner, D. N. (2004). Measuring ethnic fractionalization in Africa. American journal of political science, 48(4), 849-863.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00105.x

Raleigh, C., & Hegre, H. (2009). Population size, concentration, and civil war. A geographically disaggregated analysis. Political geography, 28(4), 224-238.   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2009.05.007

Regan, P. M., & Henderson, E. A. (2002). Democracy, threats and political repression in developing countries: are democracies internally less violent?. Third World Quarterly, 23(1), 119-136.   https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590220108207

Regan, P. M., & Norton, D. (2005). Greed, grievance, and mobilization in civil wars. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(3), 319-336.  

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002704273441

Reid, L., Myrick, R., Kadera, K. M., & Crescenzi, M. J. (2021). Conflict environments and civil war onset. Journal of Global Security Studies, 6(2), ogz064. 

https://doi.org/10.1093/jogss/ogz064

Reynal-Querol, M. (2002). Ethnicity, political systems, and civil wars. Journal of conflict resolution, 46(1), 29-54.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002702046001003

Riggs, F. W. (1995). Ethnonational rebellions and viable constitutionalism. International Political Science Review, 16(4), 375-404.

https://doi.org/10.1177/019251219501600405

Rock, M. T. (2009). Has democracy slowed growth in Asia?. World Development, 37(5), 941-952. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.09.002

Rohner, D., Thoenig, M., & Zilibotti, F. (2013). Seeds of distrust: Conflict in Uganda. Journal of Economic Growth, 18, 217-252. 

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10887-013-9093-1

Rudloff, P., & Findley, M. G. (2016). The downstream effects of combatant fragmentation on civil war recurrence. Journal of Peace Research, 53(1), 19-32.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343315617067

Rummel, R. J. (1995). Democracy, power, genocide, and mass murder. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39(1), 3-26.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002795039001001

Salahodjaev, R. (2015). Democracy and economic growth: The role of intelligence in cross-country regressions. Intelligence, 50, 228-234.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2015.04.013

Salehyan, I., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2006). Refugees and the spread of civil war. International organization, 60(2), 335-366.  https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020818306060103

Sambanis, N. (2001). Do ethnic and nonethnic civil wars have the same causes? A theoretical and empirical inquiry (Part 1). Journal of conflict resolution, 45(3), 259-282.  

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002701045003001

Sambanis, N. (2004). What is civil war? Conceptual and empirical complexities of an operational definition. Journal of conflict resolution, 48(6), 814-858. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002704269355

Sarkees, M. R. (2010). The COW typology of war: Defining and categorizing wars (version 4 of the data). Note with version 4 of the Correlates of War Data, 1816-2007.

Schneider, G., & Wiesehomeier, N. (2008). Rules that matter: political institutions and the diversity—conflict nexus. Journal of peace research, 45(2), 183-203.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343307087176

Sen, A. (2008). Violence, identity and poverty. Journal of peace research, 45(1), 5-15.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343307084920

Shabuz, Z. R., & Garthwaite, P. H. (2024). Examining collinearities. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Statistics, 66(3), 367-388.

https://doi.org/10.1111/anzs.12425

Shrestha, N. (2020). Detecting multicollinearity in regression analysis. American Journal of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, 8(2), 39-42. 

https://doi.org/10.12691/ajams-8-2-1

Singer, J. D., & Small, M. (1993). National material capabilities data, 1816-1985. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. 

https://doi.org/10.3886/icpsr09903

Skrede Gleditsch, K., & Ruggeri, A. (2010). Political opportunity structures, democracy, and civil war. Journal of Peace Research, 47(3), 299-310.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310362293

Sobek, D., & Thies, C. G. (2015). Civil wars and contemporary state building: Rebellion, conflict duration, and lootable resources. Civil wars, 17(1), 51-69.   https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2015.1059568

Sørli, M. E., Gleditsch, N. P., & Strand, H. (2005). Why is there so much conflict in the Middle East?. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(1), 141-165.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002704270824

Soysa, I. D. (2002). Ecoviolence: shrinking pie, or honey pot?. Global environmental politics, 2(4), 1-34.  

https://doi.org/10.1162/152638002320980605

Stewart, F. (2001). Horizontal inequalities: A neglected dimension of development (Vol. 1). Helsinki: United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research.

Stockemer, D. (2010). Regime type and civil war–a re-evaluation of the inverted U-relationship. Global Change, Peace & Security, 22(3), 261-274.   https://doi.org/10.1080/14781158.2010.510239

Sundberg, R., Eck, K., & Kreutz, J. (2012). Introducing the UCDP non-state conflict dataset. Journal of peace research, 49(2), 351-362.

https:/doi.org/10.1177/0022343311431598

Tavares, J., & Wacziarg, R. (2001). How democracy affects growth. European economic review, 45(8), 1341-1378.   https://doi.org/10.1016/s0014-2921(00)00093-3

Taydas, Z., & Peksen, D. (2012). Can states buy peace? Social welfare spending and civil conflicts. Journal of Peace Research, 49(2), 273-287.  

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311431286

Teorell, J., Dahlberg, S., Holmberg, S., Rothstein, B., Khomenko, A., & Svensson, R. (2016). The quality of government standard dataset, version Jan16. University of Gothenburg: The Quality of Government Institute.  https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3569563

Tezcur, G. M. (2015). Electoral behavior in civil wars: The Kurdish conflict in Turkey. Civil Wars, 17(1), 70-88.  https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2015.1059565

Thies, C. G. (2010). Of rulers, rebels, and revenue: State capacity, civil war onset, and primary commodities. Journal of peace research, 47(3), 321-332.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310361841

Thomas, A., & John Sergenti, E. (2010). Economic growth and ethnic violence: An empirical investigation of Hindu–Muslim riots in India. Journal of Peace research, 47(5), 535-546.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310373032

Thyne, C. L. (2006). Cheap signals with costly consequences: The effect of interstate relations on civil war. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50(6), 937-961.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002706293675

Tilly, C. (1978). From mobilization to revolution. Reading, England. McGraw-Hill College

Tir, J., & Singh, S. P. (2015). Get off my lawn: Territorial civil wars and subsequent social intolerance in the public. Journal of Peace Research, 52(4), 478-491.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343315571008

Toft, M. D. (2021). Getting religion right in civil wars. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 65(9), 1607-1634. 

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002721997895

Trinn, C., & Wencker, T. (2018). Introducing the Heidelberg approach to conflict research. European Political Science, 17, 111-121. 

https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-016-0093-4

Trinn, C., & Wencker, T. (2021). Integrating the quantitative research on the onset and incidence of violent intrastate conflicts. International Studies Review, 23(1), 115-139.   https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viaa023

Vreeland, J. R. (2008). Political institutions and human rights: Why dictatorships enter into the United Nations Convention Against Torture. International Organization, 62(1), 65-101.   https://doi.org/10.1017/s002081830808003x

Wahman, M., Teorell, J., & Hadenius, A. (2013). Authoritarian regime types revisited: updated data in comparative perspective. Contemporary Politics, 19(1), 19-34. 

https://doi.org/10.1080/13569775.2013.773200

Ward, M. D., Greenhill, B. D., & Bakke, K. M. (2010). The perils of policy by p-value: Predicting civil conflicts. Journal of peace research, 47(4), 363-375.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343309356491

Warren, T. C., & Troy, K. K. (2015). Explaining violent intra-ethnic conflict: Group fragmentation in the shadow of state power. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 59(3), 484-509.   https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002713515400

Weede, E., & Muller, E. N. (1998). Rebellion, violence and revolution: A rational choice perspective. Journal of peace research, 35(1), 43-59.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343398035001004

Wegenast, T. C., & Basedau, M. (2014). Ethnic fractionalization, natural resources and armed conflict. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 31(4), 432-457.  

https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894213508692

Wimmer, A., & Min, B. (2006). From empire to nation-state: Explaining wars in the modern world, 1816–2001. American sociological review, 71(6), 867-897.   https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240607100601

Wimmer, A., Cederman, L. E., & Min, B. (2009). Ethnic politics and armed conflict: A configurational analysis of a new global data set. American sociological review, 74(2), 316-337.   https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240907400208

Wooldridge, J. M. (2010). Econometric analysis of cross section and panel data. MIT press.

World Bank. (2023). World development indicators. The World Bank Washington DC.

https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators

Wucherpfennig, J., Metternich, N. W., Cederman, L. E., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2012). Ethnicity, the state, and the duration of civil war. World Politics, 64(1), 79-115. 

https://doi.org/10.1017/s004388711100030x